While some can be found in the bones, liver, and red blood cells, 98% is found in the muscle cells. Hypokalemia is often caused by an excessive loss of potassium in your digestive tract due to vomiting, diarrhea or laxative use. Educate the patient about the role of potassium in the body. Hypokalemia Case Scenario A 57-year old male presents to the ED with complaints of nausea, weakness, heart palpitations, and mild shortness of breath. nursing diagnosis provided by NANDA nursing care plans for various nursing mental health and psychiatric nursing. Herdman, T., Kamitsuru, S. & Lopes, C. (2021). Also, large amounts of potassium found in the intestinal fluids are excreted during episodes of diarrhea. Potassium is an essential mineral that is responsible for fluid balance, regulating nerve signals, and muscle contraction. Rapid administration of IV potassium can cause cardiac arrest so an IV pump should always be used. Doenges, M. E., Moorhouse, M. F., & Murr, A. C. (2006). Urinalysis can also show the presence of potassium in the urine. Too much potassium supplementation can cause hyperkalemia. The patient is experiencing weakness, heart palpitations, and shortness of breath. Bananas, spinach, broccoli, and some fish are high in potassium. She has more than 10 years of clinical and teaching experience and worked as a licensed Nursing Specialist in JCI-accredited hospitals in the Middle East. 1. For the prevention of hypokalemia in patients with persistent losses, as with ongoing diuretic therapy or hyperaldosteronism, 20 mmol per day is usually sufficient.15, Hyperkalemia is caused by excess potassium intake, impaired potassium excretion, or transcellular shifts (Table 2).8,24 The etiology of hyperkalemia is often multifactorial, with impaired renal function, medication use, and hyperglycemia as the most common contributors.25 Because healthy individuals can adapt to excess potassium consumption by increasing excretion, increased potassium intake is rarely the sole cause of hyperkalemia, and underlying renal dysfunction is common.24. Here we will formulate sample Hypokalemia nursing care plans based on a hypothetical case scenario. Additionally, this sampleHypokalemianursing care plan comprises nursing assessment, NANDA nursing diagnosis, goal, and interventions with rationales. Repeat measurement of serum potassium can help identify pseudohyperkalemia, which is common and typically results from potassium moving out of cells during or after sample collection.31 Other laboratory studies include measurement of serum blood urea nitrogen and creatinine, measurement of urine electrolytes and creatinine, and assessment of acid-base status. Search dates: February, September, and December 2014. ALL-IN-ONE CARE PLANNING RESOURCE (4th ed.). The effect can cause slow peristalsis which can lead to constipation. Rectal: 30 to 50 g every 6 hours in a retention enema. Volume depletion. Diuretics may be temporarily paused until potassium level increases and fluid status is normalized. Activity intolerance related to insufficient potassium to support regular body functions as evidenced by weakness, palpitations, and shortness of breath. Low potassium (hypokalemia) - Mayo Clinic Low potassium diet include eating apples, berries, pineapple, breads, and cereals. The patient has a past medical history of heart failure and takes furosemide (Lasix) daily. Sample Hypokalemia Nursing Care Plans |NANDA Nursing Diagnosis Encourage the patient to stand up and reposition slowly to prevent faintness and falls. document.getElementById("ak_js_1").setAttribute("value",(new Date()).getTime()); This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. (1998). For example, a decline in serum potassium from 3.8 to 2.9 mEq per L (3.8 to 2.9 mmol per L) roughly corresponds to a 300-mEq (300-mmol) reduction in total body potassium. Hypothermia and increased blood cell production (for example, leukemia) are additional risk factors for developing hypokalemia. Insulin and Glucose. Skidmore-Roth Publications. Hypokalemia: Symptoms, causes, and diagnosis - Medical News Today Assess the level of consciousness and neuromuscular function, including sensation, strength, and movement.The client is usually conscious and alert; however, muscular paresthesia, weakness, and flaccid paralysis may occur. P. otassium functions to maintain fluid balance, to regulate nerve signals, and to help with muscle contractions. For both disorders, it is important to consider potential causes of transcellular shifts because patients are at increased risk of rebound potassium disturbances. In children, dosing is 0.5 to 1.0 mmol per L per kg over one hour (maximum of 40 mmol).23 Potassium should not be given in dextrose-containing solutions because dextrose-stimulated insulin secretion can exacerbate hypokalemia. Short-term goal: By the end of the shift the patient will experience a resolution of heart palpitations and shortness of breath, with no further PVCs seen on ECG.Advertisementsif(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[300,250],'nurseship_com-leader-2','ezslot_8',642,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-nurseship_com-leader-2-0'); Long-term goal: The patient will maintain a normal potassium level, monitoring for recurrent signs and symptoms of hypokalemia. If the patient is on diuretics regimen, switch to potassium-sparing diuretics as prescribed. Desired Outcome: The patient will be able to achieve a weight within his/her normal BMI range, demonstrating healthy eating patterns and choices. RN, BSN, PHNClinical Nurse Instructor, Emergency Room Registered NurseCritical Care Transport NurseClinical Nurse Instructor for LVN and BSN students. Avoid using medical jargons and explain in laymans terms. Insulin and glucose . 10 Electrolyte Imbalance Nursing Diagnosis & Care Plans 5. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); This is a community of professional nurses gifted with literary skills who share theoretical and clinical knowledge, nursing tidbits, facts, statistics, healthcare information, news, disease data, care plans, drugs and anything under the umbrella of nursing. Typically, the first ECG manifestation of hypokalemia is decreased T-wave amplitude. Monitor respiratory rate and depth. Explain what hyperkalemia is, and how it affects the vital organs such as the kidneys and heart. Hypokalemia is a serum potassium level less than 3.5 mEq/L or 3.5 mmol/L. Hemolysis or breakdown of red blood cells, Rhabdomyolysis or the breakdown of muscle tissues, Burns, trauma, and other tissue injuries can also cause the release of potassium from the cells. Buy on Amazon, Gulanick, M., & Myers, J. L. (2017). Sample Osteoporosis Nursing Care Plans |NANDA Nursing Diagnosis |Interventions with Rationales, Clopidogrel Bisulfate (Plavix) Nursing Implications |Patient Teachings, 19 NANDA Nursing Diagnosis for Fracture |Nursing Priorities & Management, 25 NANDA Nursing Diagnosis for Breast Cancer, 5 Stages of Bone Healing Process |Fracture classification |5 Ps, 9 NANDA nursing diagnosis for Cellulitis |Management |Patho |Pt education, 20 NANDA nursing diagnosis for Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD). About 98% of the bodys potassium is found inside the cells and the rest is found extracellularly. Consider IV maintenance fluids with potassium added. An ECG is performed to check heart rhythm. The physical examination should focus on identifying cardiac arrhythmias and neurologic manifestations, which range from generalized weakness to ascending paralysis. 2. [] Hypokalemia is a potentially life-threatening imbalance that may be iatrogenically induced. Indications for prompt intervention are symptoms of hyperkalemia, changes on ECG, severe hyperkalemia (greater than 6.5 mEq per L), rapid-onset hyperkalemia, or underlying heart disease, cirrhosis, or kidney disease.24,30,3335 Potassium should be monitored often because patients are at risk of redeveloping hyperkalemia until the underlying disorder is corrected and excess potassium is eliminated. Hypokalemia is treated with oral or intravenous potassium. Conditions that cause hypoaldosteronism, such as adrenal insufficiency and hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism (a common complication of diabetic nephropathy and tubulointerstitial diseases), can lead to hyperkalemia. Organ system dysfunction, such as life-threatening dysrhythmias, can occur when potassium is not balanced. How to Diagnose Fluid Volume Deficit: Signs and Care Plan - PrepScholar Nonurgent hypokalemia is treated with 40 to 100 mmol of oral potassium per day over days to weeks. The signs and symptoms of hypokalemia and hyperkalemia depend on how critical the potassium level is and how rapid the rise and fall in potassium levels happens: Hypokalemia and hyperkalemia typically happen as a result of another problem. Various mechanisms promote the exit of potassium from cells or impede its entrance, thereby raising the plasma potassium concentration (redistributive hyperkalemia). Potassium supplementation is the main treatment for hypokalemia. Hyponatremia & Hypernatremia Nursing Diagnosis & Care Plan Centrally potassium can be administered more quickly and in larger doses via this route. Assess urine output and kidney function through BUN, GFR, and creatinine levels. Low Potassium Level Causes (Hypokalemia) - Cleveland Clinic A low serum potassium concentration is perhaps the most common electrolyte abnormality encountered in clinical practice. The normal serum potassium concentration ranges from 3.5 to 5.0 mEq/L. Treatment-related side effects such as cytotoxic drugs. Diuretics. The bodys muscles depend highly on potassium level to function adequately. IV fluids with added potassium would be appropriate for dehydrated and hypokalemic patients, or if the patient required ongoing diuretic administration despite low potassium. Ignatavicius, MS, RN, CNE, ANEF, D. D., Workman, PhD, RN, FAAN, M. L., Rebar, PhD, MBA, RN, COI, C. R., & Heimgartner, MSN, RN, COI, N. M. (2018). If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. However, we aim to publish precise and current information. When defined as a value of less than 3.6 mmol of potassium per . Hypokalemia can be life-threatening. 2023 Nurseslabs | Ut in Omnibus Glorificetur Deus! Priority nursing diagnoses allnurses. Typically, 10 units of insulin are administered, followed by 25 g of glucose to prevent hypoglycemia.37 Because hypoglycemia is a common adverse effect even with the provision of glucose, serum glucose levels should be monitored regularly. Monitor laboratory results, such as serum potassium and arterial blood gases, as indicated.Evaluate therapy needs and effectiveness. Chronic kidney disease, diabetes, heart failure, and liver disease all increase the risk of hyperkalemia. The diagnosis of hyperkalemia includes history taking and physical examination. Too much or too little potassium in diet. Your kidneys control your body's potassium levels, allowing for excess . ANTHONY J. VIERA, MD, MPH, AND NOAH WOUK, MD. Monitor blood potassium levels.Serum potassium levels should be monitored closely and redrawn as ordered to monitor for hypo/hyperkalemia. 4. 2. The patient says: Ive been on Lasix for years now so I know what to expect, but I still think Ive been urinating more than usual. He also reports thirst and constipation, but he was careful not to drink excess water because of his heart failure. It also decreases the risk of falls and fall related injuries. Diabetic ketoacidosis. Potential health risks are avoidable as long as the potassium levels are kept at a normal level. The majority of potassium is stored in the intracellular compartment. Muscle wasting and paralysis can result from very low potassium levels. Rapid correction is possible with oral potassium; the fastest results are likely best achieved by combining oral (e.g., 20 to 40 mmol) and intravenous administration.22. nursing care plan for HYPOKALEMIA plsss. - allnurses Her experience spans almost 30 years in nursing, starting as an LVN in 1993. There are different types of test and diagnosis for hypokalemia disease, those are given in the below: S. Electrolytes / Potassium, Magnesium, Calcium, Phosphorous, TSH, Aldosterone, ECG, . 2. Blood test. Nursing Diagnosis: Electrolyte Imbalance Related to: Changes in the regulation of potassium Changes in the intake of potassium Difficulty excreting potassium Conditions that affect the movement of potassium in the cellular space As evidenced by: Alterations in the electrical conductivity of the heart Ineffective respirations The combination of furosemide and beta-blocker may reduce blood pressure and decrease heart rate. Severe or symptomatic hypokalemia can be treated promptly with oral and IV potassium. This indicates depletion in the normal potassium levels in the body, a potential life-threatening emergency and can be fatal. https://twitter.com/gitelmansuk/status/668416488211136512, Urinary Tract Infection Nursing Care Plan, Impaired concentrating ability Dizziness and fainting, Increased ammonia production Increased frequency in urination, Increased bicarbonate reabsorption extreme thirst, Altered sodium reabsorption seizure and coma, Hypokalemic nephropathy Unable to hold urine, Serum potassium levels less than 3.5 mEq/L, ECG changes- flat/inverted T waves, depressed ST segment, elevated U wave, Urinary potassium excretion test exceeding 20 mEq/day. Normal Potassium Level 3.5-5.1 ( 2.5 or less is very dangerous) Most of the body's potassium is found in the intracellular part of the cell (inside of the cell) compared to the extracellular (outside of the cell), which is where sodium is mainly found. 7. Review drug regimen for medications containing potassium or affecting potassium excretion such as spironolactone (Aldactone), hydrochlorothiazide (Maxzide), amiloride (Midamor), and penicillin G.Requires regular monitoring of potassium levels and may require alternate drug choices or changes in the dosage or frequency. Hypokalemia can become life threatening if it affects the heart muscle, causes paralysis, or impairs the functioning of the lungs. Inadequate or too much intake of potassium-rich food can alter the blood levels of potassium. Medical-Surgical Nursing: Concepts for Interprofessional Collaborative Care (9th ed., pp. When severe, potassium disorders can lead to life-threatening cardiac conduction disturbances and neuromuscular dysfunction. A 12-lead ECG is performed and shows sinus tachycardia with PVCs. Saunders comprehensive review for the NCLEX-RN examination (9th ed.). 4. Kathleen Salvador is a registered nurse and a nurse educator holding a Masters degree. You have entered an incorrect email address! Medical conditions related to the breakdown or injury to cells can cause high potassium levels in the blood. The rapidity and method of potassium repletion depends on the: St. Louis, MO: Elsevier. Nursing interventions for hyperkalemia patients aim to prevent life-threatening cardiac dysrhythmias by reducing serum potassium levels through a combination of medication administration, dietary management, and monitoring. Educate the patient about hyperkalemia. Treat underlying conditions.Potassium imbalances can be caused by kidney disease, diabetes, alcoholism, Addisons disease, and more. Potassium Disorders: Hypokalemia and Hyperkalemia | AAFP Patient information: See related handout on potassium, written by the authors of this article. Deficient knowledge related to diuretic side-effects and hypokalemia as evidenced by the patient thinking apples were high in potassium. During the treatment, however, low potassium may result due to the administration of insulin. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier. What is the NANDA nursing diagnosis for pneumonia . Data Sources: An Essential Evidence search was conducted. Potassium supplement. Crackles. It also maintains the transmembrane electrical potential that exists between the ICF and ECF. Medical conditions can also cause abnormal potassium levels; therefore, treatment also includes correcting the main cause of abnormal potassium levels. Inform the healthcare team about the patients level of risk of falls.Effective communication among healthcare team members encourages collaboration and teamwork, which promotes the safety and prevention of fall incidents for the patient. Identification and treatment of concurrent hypomagnesemia are also important because magnesium depletion impedes potassium repletion and can exacerbate hypokalemia-induced rhythm disturbances.16,17. Potassium supplements are used to treat severe hypokalemia. Hypokalemia Nursing Care Plan - RN speak All Rights Reserved. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier. and, i didn't It gets potassium through the food you eat. It will include three Hypokalemia nursing care plans with NANDA nursing diagnoses, nursing assessment, expected outcome, and nursing interventions with rationales. Depletion of potassium occurs and then leads to altered electrolyte balance in the body. Possibly evidenced by Ascites. INTRODUCTION. It should be noted that the recommended dose of nebulized albuterol (10 to 20 mg) is four to eight times greater than the typical respiratory dose. Hyperkalemia & Hypokalemia (Potassium Imbalances) Nursing Care Plans, Hyperkalemia: Risk for Electrolyte Imbalance, Hypokalemia: Risk for Electrolyte Imbalance, All-in-One Nursing Care Planning Resource E-Book: Medical-Surgical, Pediatric, Maternity, and Psychiatric-Mental Health, Nursing Care Plans (NCP): Ultimate Guide and Database, Nursing Diagnosis Guide and List: All You Need to Know to Master Diagnosing, Fluid Balance: Hypervolemia & Hypovolemia, Potassium (K) Imbalances: Hyperkalemia and Hypokalemia, Sodium (Na) Imbalances: Hypernatremia and Hyponatremia, Magnesium (Mg) Imbalances: Hypermagnesemia and Hypomagnesemia, Calcium (Ca) Imbalances: Hypercalcemia and Hypocalcemia, Hypervolemia & Hypovolemia (Fluid Imbalances) Nursing Care Plans, Hypermagnesemia & Hypomagnesemia (Magnesium Imbalances) Nursing Care Plans. To accurately measure the input and output of the patient. Nursing Diagnosis: Risk for Decreased Cardiac Output. Therefore, a first priority is determining the need for urgent treatment through a combination of history, physical examination, laboratory, and electrocardiography findings. Inhaled Beta Agonists. Please follow your facilities guidelines and policies and procedures. Potassium levels should be closely monitored during repletion, making sure the level is rising but does not exceed 4.0 mmol/L. 3. Nanda Nursing Diagnosis List Mental Health Hyperkalemia - forums.usc.edu Moderate hypokalemia is a serum level of 2.5-3.0 mEq/L, and severe hypokalemia is a level of less than 2.5 mEq/L. Swearingen, P. (2016). 3. Hypokalemia nursing diagnosis Tips and Tricks From Doctors. Other recommended site resources for this nursing care plan: Other nursing care plans related to endocrine system and metabolism disorders: document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Matt Vera, a registered nurse since 2009, leverages his experiences as a former student struggling with complex nursing topics to help aspiring nurses as a full-time writer and editor for Nurseslabs, simplifying the learning process, breaking down complicated subjects, and finding innovative ways to assist students in reaching their full potential as future healthcare providers. Dilute potassium when given IV.For patients who cannot take PO medications, IV potassium will be administered. Obtain daily blood sample from the patient. Determine the patients independence in performing activities.Promote and assist in patient ambulation and independence in self care. Patients with a serum glucose level of more than 250 mg per dL (13.9 mmol per L) typically do not require coadministration of glucose. Potassium pills are quite large if the patient has a difficult time swallowing, consider potassium powder or IV administration. Hypokalemia - Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders - MSD Manual When he started to feel heart palpitations and shortness of breath, he decided to come to the hospital. You vomit a lot. Hyperkalemia and hypokalemia can also cause paralysis and weakness. Hinkle, J. L., & Cheever, K. H. (2018). Elsevier Health Sciences. List of NANDA Approved Nursing Diagnoses Nurse Hussein. Excessive sweating. Bradycardia can progress to cardiac fibrillation and arrest. A total of 46 new nursing diagnoses and 67 amended nursing diagnostics are presented. Hyperkalemia-induced ventricular fibrillation is treated with calcium. Hypokalemia | NEJM - New England Journal of Medicine Inform the patient of the need to undergo dialysis, if indicated by the physician. Buy on Amazon, Silvestri, L. A. Administer a slow intravenous potassium solution as prescribed. Risk for decreased cardiac output associated with potassium imbalance is caused by a disruption in the electric signals in the myocardium resulting in dysrhythmias. It can result in serious injury or death if it becomes too high or too low. Infuse potassium-based medication or solutions slowly.Prevents administration of concentrated bolus, allows time for kidneys to clear excess free potassium. Including the client in the plan of care elicits participation. 3. Copyright 2015 by the American Academy of Family Physicians. These assessments allow the nurse to determine patients at the highest risk for falls to implement precautions. Hyperaldosteronism Nursing Diagnosis and Nursing Care Plan The ECG can provide useful information for hypokalemia. A 57-year old male presents to the ED with complaints of nausea, weakness, heart palpitations, and mild shortness of breath. Prioritized nursing diagnosis includes risk for decreased cardiac tissue perfusion, activity intolerance, and deficient knowledge. By using any content on this website, you agree never to hold us legally liable for damages, harm, loss, or misinformation. Some of the potassium ions are lost when vomiting occurs. Changes in the level of consciousness (lethargy, disorientation, confusion to coma). The goal of nursing care is to restore and maintain normal potassium levels through monitoring and appropriate interventions. Hypokalemia is a serum potassium level less than 3.5 mEq/L or 3.5 mmol/L. Evaluation begins with a search for warning signs or symptoms warranting urgent treatment (Figure 1).7,14 These include weakness or palpitations, changes on electrocardiography (ECG), severe hypokalemia (less than 2.5 mEq per L [2.5 mmol per L]), rapid-onset hypokalemia, or underlying heart disease or cirrhosis.7,15 Most cases of hypokalemia-induced rhythm disturbances occur in individuals with underlying heart disease.10 Early identification of transcellular shifts is important because management may differ. 9. Patients with heart failure may experience hyperkalemia due to their medications (ACE inhibitors and beta blockers). To conclude, here we have formulated a scenario-based nursing care plan for Hypokalemia. For the past few nights, he has had severe leg cramps that have woken him up. The patient complains of weakness, nausea, heart palpitations, and shortness of breath. Hypokalemia refers to a condition in which the concentration of Potassium in the blood is low. ECG should be considered if the potassium level is greater than 6 mEq per L; if there are symptoms of hyperkalemia; if there is suspicion of rapid-onset hyperkalemia; or among patients with underlying kidney disease, heart disease, or cirrhosis who have a new case of hyperkalemia. The patient thought his potassium might be low, so he ate 2 apples with no improvement noted. Renal function should be monitored for patients receiving potassium replacement. The most common cause of excessive loss of Potassium is often associated with heavy fluid losses that flush Potassium out of . Careful monitoring of fluid intake and output is necessary because 40 mEq of potassium is lost for every liter of urine. Folic acid deficiency is typically related to hypokalemia as most food sources of folic acid are the same food sources of potassium. Nursing Diagnosis: Acute Confusion Related to: Dehydration Electrolyte imbalance Impaired metabolism Urinary retention As evidenced by: Cognitive dysfunction Elsevier. A risk for diagnosis is not evidenced by signs and symptoms as the problem has not yet occurred and nursing interventions are aimed at prevention. 4. Explain to the patient the relation of altered potassium levels to nausea and vomiting and loss of appetite. 1. Implement safety measures when administering IV potassium.Because IV potassium infusion can cause phlebitis as a complication, the nurse should regularly check the IV site for indications of phlebitis or infiltration. Intravenous calcium should be administered if hyperkalemic ECG changes are present. Potassium levels can fluctuate in the treatment of DKA. Short-term goal: By the end of the shift the patients potassium will normalize and the patient will experience a resolution of symptoms. Urine test. She has worked in Medical-Surgical, Telemetry, ICU and the ER. Potassium disorders are common. 3. Review the patients current medications.Imbalanced potassium levels can be caused by drugs including diuretics, beta-blockers, and aminoglycosides. All-in-One Nursing Care Planning Resource E-Book: Medical-Surgical, Pediatric, Maternity, and Psychiatric-Mental HealthIncludes over 100 care plans for medical-surgical, maternity/OB, pediatrics, and psychiatric and mental health. Volume depletion is typically accompanied by increased potassium excretion in the kidneys. Treatment of hyperkalemia. However, case reports linking the concomitant use of sodium polystyrene sulfonate and sorbitol to GI injury prompted a U.S. Food and Drug Administration boxed warning.41,42 More recent reports implicate sodium polystyrene sulfonate alone.43 Therefore, use of the drug with or without sorbitol should be avoided in patients with or at risk of abnormal bowel function, such as postoperative patients and those with constipation or inflammatory bowel disease.42, There is no evidence supporting the use of diuretics for the acute treatment of hyperkalemia. Hyperkalemia secondary to decreased distal delivery of sodium and water occurs with congestive heart failure, cirrhosis, acute kidney injury, and advanced chronic kidney disease. A slow intravenous potassium solution is given to raise the potassium level in the blood stream. Hypernatremia can cause lethargy, personality changes, and confusion. Disclosure: Included below are affiliate links from Amazon at no additional cost from you. Hypokalemia occurs when potassium falls below 3.6mmol/L and hyperkalemia occurs when potassium level in the blood is greater than 5.2mmol/L. Polyuria -potassium is mainly excreted through the kidneys. 4. 2. Therefore, potassium helps control the fluid inside the cell, while sodium . You have diarrhea. Instruct the client in the use of potassium-containing salts or salt substitutes, and taking potassium supplements safely.Prevention of hyperkalemia can be managed with diet, supplements, and other medications. (2020). Hypokalemia: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology - Medscape 1. Nursing Care Plans The goal of nursing care is to restore and maintain normal potassium levels through monitoring and appropriate interventions. Articles submitted here are original but are checked for minor typographical errors, and are formatted for site compatibility.This is a site that continuously improves and broadcasts healthcare information relevant to today's ever-changing world. Hypokalemia is a side effect of diuretic administration and the patient is showing signs of dehydration. Assess the patients readiness to learn, misconceptions, and blocks to learning (e.g. Risk for falls associated with potassium imbalance is caused by a disruption in the electric signals in muscles resulting in muscle weakness, cramping, hyporeflexia, and paralysis. Dialysis should be considered in patients with kidney failure or life-threatening hyperkalemia, or when other treatment strategies fail.23,37 Other modalities are not rapid enough for urgent treatment of hyperkalemia.39, Currently available cation exchange resins, typically sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate) in the United States, are not beneficial for the acute treatment of hyperkalemia but may be effective in lowering total body potassium in the subacute setting.25,39 Because sodium polystyrene sulfonate can be constipating, many formulations include sorbitol for its laxative effects. Comer, S. and Sagel, B. Further evaluation may include measurement of serum glucose to evaluate for hyperglycemia, and measurement of serum renin, aldosterone, and cortisol to further investigate kidney and adrenal function.
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